# https://thehistoryofscagliola.com


## Pages

- [22. Lombardy, Piedmont and the Ticino](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/22-lombardy-piedmont-and-the-ticino/): Chapter 22. Lombardy, Piedmont and the Ticino A direct Emilian influence on the development of scagliola in northern Italy came from the Leoni brothers, Ludovico and Giovanni.  Natives of Carpi, they had both trained under Annibale Griffoni.  Early in their careers their father, found guilty of murder, was stripped of his possessions and sentenced to death.  He fled the Duchy of Modena and settled in Cremona in Lombardy, taking his family with him.   Exactly when this happened is not recorded, and little is known of the brothers’ lives.  Giovanni, the younger of the two, was the more accomplished scagliolist. Ludovico […]
- [Section VI.  The Diffusion of Religious Scagliola to Other Areas of Italy.](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/section-vi-the-diffusion-of-religious-scagliola-to-other-areas-of-italy/): Part 2. Scagliola in the Service of the Catholic Church 1600-1760. Section VI. The Diffusion of Religious Scagliola To Other Areas Of Italy.  22.  Lombardy, Piedmont and the Ticino.  23. The Papal States of Romagna and Le Marche.  24. Tuscany   By the start of the eighteenth century inlaid scagliola had spread far beyond Emilia and there were scagliolists at work in several parts of central and northern Italy and beyond. It is difficult to quantify the extent of Carpi’s influence over such a large area.  The historians who were so active in asserting the reputations of the Carpi scagliolists never recorded […]
- [Chapter 21. Christian Symbolism in the Decoration of 17th. and 18th. Century Altar Fronts.](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/christian-symbolism-in-the-decoration-of-17th-and-18th-century-altar-fronts/): Chapter 21. Christian Symbolism in the Decoration of 17th. and 18th. Century Altar Fronts To understand the religious scagliola of the period requires an awareness of the role played by its symbolism. The various components that went to make up an altar front were not merely decorative; they expressed meanings that were clearly readable to congregations of the time, and every bit as important as any aesthetic value. Post-reformation Catholics felt that knowledge of this symbolic language was something that set them apart from Protestants and unbelievers. In the Catholic art of the period, each colour, flower and insect has […]
- [Chapter 20. The Carpi Masters - 3rd Generation](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/chapter-20-the-carpi-masters-3rd-generation/): Chapter 20. The Carpi Masters – Third Generation Two names dominate the final period of scagliola manufacture in and around Carpi.  Giovanni Pozzuoli and Giovanni Massa, between them active from the last years of the 1680s until the early 1740s, both  trained under Gasparo Griffoni.   At the beginning of their careers they formed a partnership, producing several signed and dated altar fronts.  At the end of the century they went their separate ways, each developing a distinctive personal style.     The partnership of Giovanni Pozzuoli and Giovanni Massa (Carpi 1689-1698). Their work together can be seen as an extension of […]
- [Chapter 19. The Carpi Masters - Second Generation](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/chapter-19-the-carpi-masters-second-generation/): Chapter 19. The Carpi Masters – Second Generation Giovan Marco Barzelli (Carpi 1637-1693) Towards the end of his life Giovanni Gavignani began to use small amounts of colour in his paliotti, mainly in the floral work surrounding the central images.  The tones were pale and delicate, and this subtle colouring became the hallmark of one his most talented pupils, Giovan Marco Barzelli.  An altar front made by Giovanni Gavignani towards the end of his life in the commune of Budrione to the north of Carpi The move away from the austerity of black and white scagliola towards colour and greater […]
- [Chapter 18. The Carpi Masters - First Generation](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/the-carpi-masters-first-generation/): Chapter 18. The Carpi Masters – First Generation Guido Fassi/Guido del Conte (Carpi 1584-1640) Guido Fassi was not the inventor of scagliola (see Chapter 16), but he can take the credit for introducing it to his home town of Carpi.  He was the first Italian to demonstrate its value within the context of religious furnishings, and the subsequent success of the Carpi scagliolists undoubtedly owes much to his artistic and commercial vision. The earliest example of scagliola in Carpi is an inlaid memorial stone in the cathedral dedicated to Cristoforo Priori and dated 1611.  It has been accredited to Guido […]
- [Chapter 17:  The Achievements of the Emilian Scagliolists](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/elementor-8440/): Chapter 17: The Achievements of the Emilian Scagliolists.  Introduction.  Emilia Romagna began producing scagliola in the first half of the seventeenth century, and continued to do so for the next hundred and fifty years.  The area’s principal  Maestri are known by name, and many of the works attributed to them survive.  The way scagliola manufacture was organised in the region was in strong contrast to that of Munich.  Instead of a state monopoly under the strict control of a royal court, independent makers and workshops competed with one another for commissions.  The Italian scagliolists tended to be of higher socio-economic […]
- [Test Home Page](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/test-home-page/): Scagliola panelling in Schleißheim Castle, Bavaria, by Wilhelm Pfeiffer c. 1630.(Moved from the Munich Residenz c. 1720)* Scagliola Altar Front, Oratorio della Vergine del Carmelo, Casasco d’Intelvi, Lombardy, c. 1700?   The purpose of this website is to tell the story of scagliola and explain its enduring popularity.  Scagliola is an artificial marble made from plaster and pigments.  It first appeared in Europe at the end of the 16th century, and immediately gained prestige status.  It was initially used in the decoration of royal palaces and Roman Catholic churches,  and subsequently in aristocratic houses and public buildings.  Its aesthetic and technical […]
- [Chapter 16.  The Origins of Italian Scagliola](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/chapter-16-the-origins-of-italian-scagliola/): Chapter 16.  The Origins of Italian Scagliola According to Italian tradition, scagliola was invented in the town of Carpi in Emilia Romagna, a few miles north of Modena, by a local architect and engineer named Guido Fassi or Guido del Conte (1584-1649).  In the early years of the seventeenth century he discovered a method for imitating marble with plaster and pigments, which he used principally for making grand architectural altar surrounds and inlaid altar fronts.  Examples of his work can be seen in Carpi Cathedral and the nearby church of San Niccolò.  Carpi’s reputation as the birthplace of scagliola was […]
- [15.  Altar Pieces](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/15-altar-pieces/): Chapter 15. Altar Pieces The altar has always held a central role in Christian worship. It is the focal point of the Eucharist, where the priest prepares the sacrament of bread and wine and the faithful kneel to receive it. In the early days of Christianity the altar was referred to as the Mensa (‘table’ in Latin).  It was a simple slab of wood or stone that could be set up when and where it was needed to function as a table top.  The Mensa was covered with a cloth which hung down to hide the supports and to give […]
- [V.  Carpi, Emilia Romagna](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/v-palliotti/): Part 2. Scagliola in the Service of the Catholic Church 1600-1760.Section V.  Carpi, Emilia Romagna15. Altar Pieces  16. The Origins of Italian Scagliola  17. The Achievements of the Emilian Scagliolists. 18. The Carpi Masters – First Generation.  19  The Carpi Masters – Second Generation.  20.  The Carpi Masters – Third Generation.  21. Christian Symbolism in the Decoration of 17th and 18th Century altar fronts.   The earliest Italian scagliola is accredited to the school of Carpi, a wealthy town close to Modena in Emilia Romagna.  The material was used predominantly for the manufacture of inlaid altar pieces (paliotti), which were supplied […]
- [14.  The Remuneration of Scagliolists at the Munich Court](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/14-appendix-the-r/): 14. The Remuneration of Scagliolists at the Munich Court. It is difficult to give meaningful values to currency in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, particularly in Germany with all its political and economic divisions.  Throughout the period the purchasing power of money and the relative costs of goods and services as a proportion of income were continually changing.  Imported silver from the Americas resulted in currency devaluation throughout Europe, and a series of bad harvests followed by the collapse of trade and agriculture during the Thirty Years War led to severe price fluctuations and rampant inflation.  Thanks to the Munich […]
- [The Third Generation](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/the-third-generation/): Chapter 13: The Third Generation The Fistulator family business continued to produce scagliola for the Munich Residence for another generation, but there were no projects that matched the scale and complexity of Blasius’s and Wilhelm’s achievements.  Most of their activity now involved refurbishment and reconstruction.  In 1674, just five years after Wilhelm Fistulator’s death, a major fire destroyed the Stone Rooms (see chapter 10). All the scagliola had to be replaced, and the work lasted on and off for the next twenty-five years, much to the dissatisfaction of the court. During the repairs, the Fistulators lost their position of pre-eminence. […]
- [Wilhelm Fistulator](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/wilhelm-fistulator/): Chapter 12. Wilhelm Fistulator (c.1590-1669) Wilhelm Fistulator took over the family business on his father’s death in 1622.  He had been apprenticed to Blasius in 1602 at the age of twelve and had worked alongside him ever since.  When doubts were raised as to whether he was ready for such a responsible position, his application was supported by Heinrich Schön, the head of building works at the royal court.  Schön stated that Wilhelm was already a master scagliolist (Meister Marmorier) who could work alone (i.e. unsupervised), and to a higher quality than even his father; furthermore, he had already stood […]
- [Secrecy and Working Conditions in Munich c. 1600](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/secrecy-and-working-conditions-in-munich-c-1600/): Chapter 11.  Secrecy and Working Conditions in Munich c. 1600. 1. The Problem of Secrecy In the final years of the sixteenth century  several rulers were already taking an interest  in Blasius Fistulator’s invention; as early as 1590 Carlo di Cesare del Palagio had supplied Stuckmarmor to Elector Christian I of Saxony  (Chapter 8. 4). The fact that three years later Carlo was called back to Munich to work on the bronze memorial statues for Duke Wilhelm V suggests that the Bavarian ruler was relaxed about sharing the new technique with one of his peers; perhaps he saw the interest […]
- [Blasius Fistulator](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/blasius-and-wilhelm-fistulator-2/): Chapter 10. Blasius Fistulator During his long career at the Munich royal court Blasius Fistulator worked for two Wittelsbach rulers, Duke Wilhelm V (r. 1579-1597 abd.) and Duke/Elector Maximilian I (r. 1597-1651). Three generations of Wittelsbachs at different ages in their lives:  LHS – The future Duke Wilhelm V in 1564 aged 16 (Ambras Castle Innsbruck);  RHS – his son, Elector Maximilian I with his son and heir Elector Ferdinand Maria (1636-1679) (Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich)* The future Duke Wilhelm V in 1564 aged 16 (Ambras Castle Innsbruck) Duke Wilhelm’s son, Elector Maximilian I with his son and heir Elector Ferdinand […]
- [Bavaria and the Munich Residence 1550-1700](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/blasius-and-wilhelm-fistulator/): Chapter 9. Bavaria and the Munich Residence 1550-1650 Germany at the end of the sixteenth century was made up of a bewildering assortment of sovereign states, prince bishoprics and imperial free towns and cities.  They all owed nominal allegiance to the Holy Roman Emperor, who was chosen by seven princely Electors, four of them secular and three ecclesiastical. Since 1452 the position had been held by the Habsburgs, Europe’s pre-eminent family, who were also hereditary rulers in Austria, Hungary, Bohemia and parts of northern Italy; a separate branch ruled Spain, the Netherlands, Naples and, through its overseas conquests, parts of […]
- [IV. Scagliola Production in 17th C. Munich](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/scagliola-production-in-17th-c-munich/): Part 1. Scagliola at the Munich Court 1585-1700Section IV. Scagliola Production in 17th Century Munich. 9)  Bavaria and the Munich Residence 1550-1700  10)  Blasius Fistulator 11)   Secrecy and Working Conditions in Munich c. 1600  12)  Wilhelm Fistulator  13) The Third Generation  14) The Remuneration of Scagliolists at the Munich Court. Building on the remarkable achievements of Blasius Pfeiffer, the family (from now on referred to as Fistulator, the classicised version of their name) was able to dominate the production of  scagliola in Southern Germany until the closing years of the seventeenth century.  They were helped in this by their strong relationship […]
- [5. The Counter Reformation](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/5-the-counter-reformation/): Chapter 5. The Counter Reformation For Catholic Europe, religious architecture in the second half of the 1500s was moving in the same grandiose and opulent direction as its secular counterpart, albeit for different reasons.  The monopoly of the old Church had been irretrievably broken by the  nonconformist teachings of Martin Luther and those who came after him.  A wholesale examination and renewal was needed if the growth of Protestantism was to be reversed, or at least held in check. The Catholic response, known as the Counter Reformation, was set in motion by the Council of Trent.  It convened over three […]
- [4. Palaces and Representations](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/4-palaces-and-representations/): Chapter 4:  Palaces and Representations. By the 1500s the Italian city-states, grown wealthy through trade and commerce, were providing new models of courtly life.  Humanism and the lessons of the Renaissance had pointed the way towards a re-evaluation of scholarship and the arts, and voyages of discovery in the eastern hemisphere were inspiring new branches of scientific enquiry.  Royal residences were evolving from military strongholds into centres of learning and culture, and for a short period cities like Florence, Mantua and Venice became the arbiters of architectural and artistic taste throughout Europe.  In the case of Florence, this pre-eminence allowed […]
- [II.  Changes in Architecture and Decoration](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/home/index/ii-changes-in-architecture/): Introduction – The Historical ContextSection II. Changes in Architecture:4) Palaces and Representations  5)  The Counter Reformation The appearance of scagliola at the end of the sixteenth century should be seen in the context of huge changes that were taking place throughout Europe.  The full extent  of these changes – political, religious, economic, scientific and so on – goes far beyond the scope of this study; but their influence was also strongly felt in the architecture and decoration of palaces and churches, and that  is where the story of scagliola begins. Main portico of the Palazzo Te, built 1524-1534 for Duke […]
- [3.  'Scagliola' and other terms](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/the-origin-of-the-word-scagliola-and-other-terminologies/): 3. The origin of the word ‘Scagliola’, its use and other terms. The Italian word scagliola (pronounced with a silent ‘g’), was in use in the Middle Ages long before the arrival of artificial marble.  ‘Scagliaiuola’ was the name given in parts of central Italy to the mineral rock from which gypsum plaster (the basic ingredient of Plaster of Paris) was obtained.  Only later did it become associated with the production of ‘scagliola’ artefacts.  The Florentine naturalist G. Targioni Tozzetti wrote in 1769:    ‘[in addition to alabaster]…the majority of scagliola (i.e. the raw mineral rock) also comes from Spicchiaiuola […]
- [2.  The Technique of Scagliola](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/the-technique-of-scagliola/): II. The Technique of Scagliola Scagliola is an imitation marble made from a paste of gypsum plaster, water and pigments.  The addition of glue to the water hardens the plaster.  It also slows down the setting process allowing time for the paste to be sliced and pressed into moulds, or beaten onto prepared surfaces such as walls and column cores.  Once the material has set hard, it is shaped and flattened using scrapers and abrasives.  Holes and hollows are filled and grouted with fresh scagliola mixes.  The surface is then polished using a series of progressively fine abrasives and re-grouting […]
- [1.  The Uses of Scagliola](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/the-uses-of-scagliola/): I. The Uses of Scagliola Scagliola is used in two different ways:  firstly, to imitate the marble and hardstone inlay work known as Pietre Dure; and secondly, as an imitation marble for internal architecture. Inlaid Scagliola. The material first appeared in southern Germany in the 1580s, and quickly received the endorsement of royalty and the Catholic Church. The Dukes and Electors of Bavaria used it to considerable effect in the Munich Residence, drawing  interest from many of Europe’s rulers, including the Holy Roman Emperor.     During the 17th and 18th centuries scagliola was used extensively in areas of central and […]
- [Storage](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/storage/): Basics and Terminology Scagliola is used to imitate the marble and hardstone inlay work known as Pietre Dure.  It was admired and valued from its first appearance in southern Germany in the 1580s, and quickly received the endorsement of royalty and the Catholic Church. The Dukes and Electors of Bavaria used it to considerable effect in the Munich Residence, drawing the interest of many of Europe’s rulers, including the Holy Roman Emperor.     During the 17th and 18th centuries it was used in several parts of northern Italy to make altar fronts [Photo 6].   Initially this work followed the example […]
- [About](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/about/): ‘The History of Scagliola’ is divided into sections, each containing a number of separate chapters.  New sections and chapters will be announced in advance and added  to the site as they become available.  When completed the work will cover the period from the end of the sixteenth century until today.  Although designed chronologically, each section can be read as a stand-alone topic.  The first two sections are introductory:  Section I gives a brief history of the use of marble up to and including the Renaissance;  Section II describes changes in the secular and religious architecture of the late sixteenth and seventeenth […]
- [Blasius Pfeiffer's Artificio](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/home/index/the-invention-of-scagliola/blasius-pfeiffers-artificio/): Chapter 7: Blasius Pfeiffer’s Artificio Blasius Pfeiffer (doc. 1585-1622) was the founding father of a family business that supplied scagliola to the Wittelsbach rulers of Bavaria throughout the seventeenth century.  There is an unconfirmed suggestion that he came from the imperial free city of Augsburg, an internationally famed centre for woodcarving and cabinet making; true or not, this was the craft in which he was trained.  Apart from that, his early life is unknown. In 1587 he was taken on as a court artist at the Munich Residence, with an annual salary of 150 guilders and two years back-pay of […]
- [III.  The Invention of Scagliola](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/home/index/the-invention-of-scagliola/): Part 1. Scagliola at the Munich Court 1585-1700Section III. The Invention of Scagliola: 6)  Prince Wilhelm’s Chapel  7)  Blasius Pfeiffer’s Artificio  8)  Loose Ends There is no incontrovertible evidence as to when and where scagliola was actually invented, although there is little doubt that it first appeared on a grand scale in the Munich Residence towards the end of the 1600s.  As this section makes clear however,  unanswered questions remain.  The Reiche Kapelle, Munich Residence.© Bayerische Schlösserverwaltung, www.schloesser.bayern.dePhoto by Richard Feroze  Special acknowledgements:  I would like to thank the many people at the Bayerische Schlösserverwaltung who have helped and advised me. […]
- [The Renaissance](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/home/index/2-the-importance-of-marble/the-renaissance/): Chapter 3:  The Renaissance. In the first half of the 1500s a series of important archaeological discoveries was made in Rome.  The excavations, begun at the end of the previous century, were part of an on-going strategy by the papacy to restore the Holy City to its former pre-eminence, not just as the centre of the Catholic faith, but of European culture and civilisation itself.  Artists such as Michelangelo, Raphael and Pinturicchio were given access to the sites and encouraged to record and reproduce what they found.  Vasari describes in his Lives of the Artists how Raphael and Udine discovered […]
- [The Middle Ages](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/home/index/2-the-importance-of-marble/the-middle-ages/): Chapter 2: The Middle Ages During the Middle Ages (conventionally seen as the period from the fall of Rome in 476 AD until the mid-fifteenth century), marble played a minor role in the decoration of secular  interiors.  Coloured marble artefacts from the classical period were highly prized for their rarity and antiquity, but the knowledge and skills required to produce them had been lost. Christendom’s rulers were itinerant for much of the period, moving between castles and well-defended manor complexes with their armed retainers, their retinues and their portable households; even in times of peace, status and military power had […]
- [Ancient Rome](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/home/index/2-the-importance-of-marble/ancient-rome/): Chapter 1: Ancient Rome ‘I found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble.’  Caesar Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD) Modern historians have suggested that the transformation of the ancient city at the hands of its first emperor was somewhat exaggerated; but what Augustus had set in motion was only a start, and within fifty years of his death, Pliny the Elder (d. AD 79), was lamenting his countrymen’s obsession with polished stones and gems, going so far as to describe it as ‘the leading folly of the day’.  His criticism, recorded in the Naturalis […]
- [I. The Importance of Marble](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/home/index/2-the-importance-of-marble/): Introduction – The Historical ContextSection I. The Importance of Marble:   1) Ancient Rome   2) The Middle Ages   3) The Renaissance To account for the success of scagliola, some knowledge is required of the material it was designed to imitate.  Inevitably this leads us back to Ancient Rome and its love affair with polished stone.  Section I provides a brief history of marble and its uses from Roman times to the late Renaissance. Inlaid marble panel, Rome c.350 A.D.The Capitoline Museums, Rome Introduction – The Historical ContextSection I. The Importance of Marble: 1) Ancient Rome   2) The Middle Ages   3) The […]
- [Chapter Index](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/home/index/): Chapter Index INTRODUCTION:  THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT Section I.  The Importance of Marble1. Ancient Rome   2. The Middle Ages   3. The Renaissance Section II.  Changes in Architecture4. Palaces and Representations   5. The Counter Reformation PART I:  Scagliola  at the Munich Court 1585-1700 Section III.  The Invention of Scagliola6. Prince Wilhelm’s Chapel   7. Blasius’s Pfeiffer’s Artificio   8. Loose Ends Section IV.  Scagliola Production in 17th Century Munich.9. Bavaria and the Munich Residence 1550-1700  10.  Blasius Fistulator  11.  Secrecy and Working Conditions in Munich c.  1600  12.  Wilhelm Fistulator  13. The Third Generation 14.  The Remuneration of Scagliolists at the Munich Royal Court. PART […]
- [Loose Ends](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/home/index/the-invention-of-scagliola/loose-ends/): Chapter 8:  Loose Ends. 1.  Florentine foreknowledge of Scagliola Dr. Diemer’s theory is convincing, but her suggestion that Carlo di Cesare del Palagio  already knew how to make artificial marble when he arrived in Germany is open to doubt.  If the Florentines had been aware of the technique at the time, there would surely be  some evidence of its use; in fact the earliest examples of scagliola in Tuscany date to the second half of the seventeenth century.     In the latter part of the sixteenth century the Florentine court put considerable effort and resources into the parallel developments of […]
- [Home](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/home-1/): Scagliola panelling in Schleißheim Castle, Bavaria, by Wilhelm Pfeiffer c. 1630.  (Moved from the Munich Residenz c. 1720)© Bayerische Schlösserverwaltung, www.schloesser.bayern.dePhoto by Richard Feroze  The purpose of this website is to tell the story of scagliola and explain its enduring popularity. Scagliola is an artificial marble made from plaster and pigments.  It first appeared in Europe at the end of the 16th century, and immediately gained prestige status.  It was initially used in the decoration of royal palaces and Roman Catholic churches, and later in aristocratic houses and public buildings.  Its aesthetic and technical versatility made it a popular choice […]
- [Home](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/): Scagliola panelling in Schleißheim Castle, Bavaria, by Wilhelm Pfeiffer c. 1630.  (Moved from the Munich Residenz c. 1720)© Bayerische Schlösserverwaltung, www.schloesser.bayern.dePhoto by Richard Feroze  The purpose of this website is to tell the story of scagliola and explain its enduring popularity. Scagliola is an artificial marble made from plaster and pigments.  It first appeared in Europe at the end of the 16th century, and immediately gained prestige status.  It was initially used in the decoration of royal palaces and Roman Catholic churches, and later in aristocratic houses and public buildings.  Its aesthetic and technical versatility made it a popular choice […]
- [Prince Wilhelm's Chapel](https://thehistoryofscagliola.com/home/index/the-invention-of-scagliola/prince-wilhelms-chapel/): Chapter 6: Prince Wilhelm’s Chapel In 1591 an envoy from the court of Mantua visited the Munich Residence, the ancestral home of the Wittelsbach rulers of Bavaria.  While he was there he recorded seeing a chapel which he thought must be the finest in the world.  He was struck by the quality and quantity of the precious jewels and metals on display, but what impressed him most of all was the stupendous ‘artificio’, which he declared to be worth ‘more than all the rest’.  He was referring to the extraordinary scagliola panelling which covered the walls, supplied by Blasius Pfeiffer […]


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